Global treaties, conventions – National and state level organizations

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"

The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of September 2011, 191 states have signed and ratified the protocol. The only remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol is the United States. Other United Nations member states which did not ratify the protocol are Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan. In December 2011, Canada renounced the Protocol.

Under the Protocol, 37 countries ("Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries give general commitments. At negotiations, Annex I countries (including the US) collectively agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012. This reduction is relative to their annual emissions in a base year, usually 1990. Since the US has not ratified the treaty, the collective emissions reduction of Annex I Kyoto countries falls from 5.2% to 4.2% below base year.

Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

The benchmark 1990 emission levels accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision 2/CP.3) were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report. These figures are used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO₂ equivalents (CO₂-eq) when computing overall sources and sinks.

The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions in non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances.

Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process" that determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board

Beyond Kyoto

UNFCCC Annual Climate Change Conferences since Kyoto

After America failed to ratify the Kyoto protocol, the mission for policy makers and environmentalists to develop a global climate treaty with which America would agree was evident.

Yearly conferences if the UNFCCC sought to discuss a binding, financially feasible, and effective agreement. All conferences that have taken place since Kyoto are listed below. A select number of conferences are explained in greater detail because their results are significant in progress since the Kyoto Protocol.

Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol". It has been ratified by 196 states and the European Union.

Rio Earth Summit

The first most prominent conference on climate change took place in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and is referred to as the "Rio Earth Summit" or the “Earth Summit”. It was the first conference since the Cold War ended, leaving capitalism as the predominant economic model. “The agenda was no longer how capitalism and democracy could defeat totalitarian socialism, but how to get capitalism working in the Third World”. The world was no longer divided between the United States and Soviet Union but rather other polarities began to emerge: “North/South, rich/poor... Developed/developing countries… overpopulation/overconsumption… present/future generations, environment/economics”. It became increasing evident that the economic order was highly unequal and that to ensure the ability for countries to adopt a liberal economic structure, they needed to ensure a sustainable access to natural resources.

The conference highlighted that the intersection of the environment and economic growth was of special relevance in the relationship between the global North and the global South. “No theme was more repeated at the UNCED Conference than that the environment could not be saved without large amounts of aid from industrial to developing nations… But G-7 nations cannot legitimately tax their own citizens to donate monies to help the poor outside their boundaries… one response is: Produce! The other is: Share!”. This issue has been central to most environmental treaties to date. To address this point of contention, the convention sought to help governments:

•“gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices

•launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries

•cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change. (UNFCCC)

The convention gave birth to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD), United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, and called for a plan of action notably called Agenda 21. Agenda 21 is a bottom-up approach to combating climate change. It initially sought to used the I=PAT equation (Impact is equal to Population times Affluence times Technology) to relieve stress on the environment. However, the question of population growth and especially contraception was omitted at the insistence of the Vatican. However, consumption remained central to the chagrin of most developed countries. It states that “This inequitable distribution of income and wealth results in excessive demands and unsustainable lifestyles among the richer segments, which place immense stress on the environment. The poorer segments, meanwhile, are unable to meet food, health care, shelter and educational needs”. It was estimated that Agenda 21 would cost approximately $600 billion, which is the main reason for its failure.

The Convention on Biological Diversity remains a central force in discussing the importance of biological diversity for a sustained ecological system today and tomorrow. The world’s biological diversity is at risk today due to many factors such as climate change, agricultural industrialization, mono crops, and genetic modification. State sovereignty is highly controversial in the debate over genetic biodiversity and demonstrates again the unequal relationship between the North’s multinational corporations and the South’s vulnerable but highly diverse flora fauna.

The UNFCCC organized the first Conference of the Parties (COP-1) in Berlin, Germany in 1995. Since then, the number of conferences have proliferated, hosting one each year. The UNFCCC is the central body in charge of organizing all of the international conferences discussing environmental issues.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

History

In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action to be taken on POPs, which it defined as "chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment".

Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the dirty dozen.

The INC met five times between June 1998 and December 2000 to elaborate the convention, and delegates adopted the Stockholm Convention on POPs at the Conference of the Plenipotentiaries convened from 22-23 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden.

The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlaw nine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of dioxins and furans.

Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and added to the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of new chemicals to be added to the Convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.

As of April, 2011, there are 173 parties to the Convention.

By October 2011 there were 176 Parties to the Convention.

Summary of Provisions

Key elements of the Convention include the requirement that developed countries provide new and additional financial resources and measures to eliminate production and use of intentionally produced POPs, eliminate unintentionally produced POPs where feasible, and manage and dispose of POPs wastes in an environmentally-sound manner. Precaution is exercised throughout the Stockholm Convention, with specific references in the preamble, the objective and the provision on identifying new POPs.

Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee

When adopting the Convention, provision was made for a procedure to identify additional POPs and the criteria to be considered in doing so. At the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP-1), held in Punta del Este, Uruguay from 2-6 May 2005, the POPRC was established to consider additional candidates nominated for listing under the Convention.

The Committee is composed of 31 experts nominated by parties from the five United Nations regional groups and reviews nominated chemicals in three stages. The Committee first determines whether the substance fulfills POP screening criteria detailed in Annex D of the Convention, relating to its persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport (LRET), and toxicity. If a substance is deemed to fulfill these requirements, the Committee then drafts a risk profile according to Annex E to evaluate whether the substance is likely, as a result of its LRET, to lead to significant adverse human health and/or environmental effects and therefore warrants global action. Finally, if the POPRC finds that global action is warranted, it develops a risk management evaluation, according to Annex F, reflecting socioeconomic considerations associated with possible control measures. Based on this, the POPRC decides to recommend that the COP list the substance under one or more of the annexes to the Convention. The POPRC has met annually in Geneva, Switzerland since its establishment.

The seventh meeting of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC-7) of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) took place from 10-14 October 2011 in Geneva, Switzerland.

POPRC-8 will be held from 15-19 October 2012 in Geneva, Switzerland.

Listed substances

There were initially twelve distinct chemicals listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene and polychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C.

Cemicals newly proposed for inclusion in Annexes A,B,C

POPRC-7 considered three proposals for listing in Annexes A, B and/or C of the Convention: chlorinated naphthalenes (CNs), hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) and pentachlorophenol (PCP), its salts and esters. The proposal is the first stage of the POPRC’s work in assessing a substance, and requires the POPRC to assess whether the proposed chemical satisfies the criteria in Annex D of the Convention. The criteria for forwarding a proposed chemical to the risk profile preparation stage are persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport (LRET), and adverse effects.

Controversies

Although some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in reality the treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector). From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, and environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need for research.

Related conventions and other ongoing negotiations regarding pollution

§  Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.

§  Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP)

§  Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

Ongoing negotiations

§  Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee's work towards a Legally Binding Instrument on Mercury

§  Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS)

§  Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)

Environmental organizations

National and state level organizations

The Ministry of Environment and Forests through its Department of Environment and the Tamil Nadu Forest Department is the primary Government organization planning and implementing environmental policy in the state. The Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology coordinates government scientific agencies and creates environmental awareness programs in the state, There are several prominent leaders worth public roles in these efforts. There are environmental NGOs working in the state who are characterized by funding from private sources, programs of environmental activism and a high degree of autonomy and volunteerism.

Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), statutory organisation, was constituted in September, 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Further, CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Principal Functions of the 

CPCB, as spelt out in the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, (i) to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and (ii) to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country. Air Quality Monitoring is an important part of the air quality management. The National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) has been established with objectives to determine the present air quality status and trends and to control and regulate pollution from industries and other source to meet the air quality standards. It also provides background air quality data needed for industrial siting and towns planning. Besides this, CPCB has an automatic monitoring station at ITO Intersection in New Delhi. At this station Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone (O₃), Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) are being monitored regularly. This information on Air Quality at ITO is updated every week.

Fresh water is a finite resource essential for use in agriculture, industry, propagation of wildlife & fisheries and for human existence. India is a riverine country. It has 14 major rivers, 44 medium rivers and 55 minor rivers besides numerous lakes, ponds and wells which are used as primary source of drinking water even without treatment. Most of the rivers being fed by monsoon rains, which is limited to only three months of the year, run dry throughout the rest of the year often carrying wastewater discharges from industries or cities/towns endangering the quality of our scarce water resources. The parliament of India in its wisdom enacted the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 with a view to maintaining and restoring wholesomeness of our water bodies. One of the mandates of CPCB is to collect, collate and disseminate technical and statistical data relating to water pollution. Hence, water Quality Monitoring (WQM) and Surveillance are of utmost importance

TAMILNADU POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD 

TamilNadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB), established in 1982, functions with Head Office at Chennai, five Regional Offices headed by Joint Chief Environment Engineers, eighteen District Offices head by District Environmental Engineers and two District Offices headed by Assistant Environmental Engineers. 

To assist in the Analytical and Scientific side, the Board has established three Advanced Environmental Laboratories, six District Environmental Laboratories and three Mobile Environmental Laboratories. 

TNPCB is implementing the Pollution Control Legislations and Rules and Notifications framed there in. In discharging the duties entrusted to it, the Board investigates collects and disseminates data relating to water, air and land pollution, lays down standards for sewage/trade effluent and emissions. 

The field Officers of the Board periodically inspect every industry under their jurisdiction to assess the adequacy of treatment measures provided to treat the effluent and gaseous emissions. Board has classified the industries as per their pollution load for effective monitoring as red, orrange and green.

TNPCB issues consent to new industries in two stages, i.e., consent to establish depending upon suitability of the site before the industry takes up the construction and consent to operate, after installation of pollution control measures to satisfy the standards. 

TNPCB has delegated the powers to the field officers for close monitoring. The Joint Chief Environmental Engineers in Regions are empowered to grant consent to existing orange and green category industries and renewal of consent to small scale industries and also to issue show cause notices to the large and medium scale units. The District Environmental Engineers are empowered to issue show cause notices to erring small scale industries. TNPCB plays a catalytic role in the implementation of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) for polluting cluster of small scale units like tanneries, textile dyeing units etc.

TNPCB is taking effective steps for safe disposal of hazardous wastes and has completed the inventory of hazardous waste generating units and also identified sites for disposal of hazardous wastes. TNPCB is creating environmental awareness in the State through the Environmental Training Institute, Environmental Awareness Cell, Environmental Awareness Programme, Environmental Pavilion constructed at the Periyar Science and Technology Centre (Chennai), NGO Cell, Publishing of New Letters/Pamphlets on environmental issues etc.

different offices in Tamil nadu pollution control board include head office situated in Chennai, Regional offices, District office at each district and laboratories.

Source:wiki